politik

Politik adalah proses pembentukan dan pembagian kekuasaan dalam masyarakat yang antara lain berwujud proses pembuatan keputusan, khususnya dalam negara.^[1] Pengertian ini merupakan upaya penggabungan antara berbagai definisi yang berbeda mengenai hakikat politik yang dikenal dalam ilmu politik.
Politik adalah seni dan ilmu untuk meraih kekuasaan secara konstitusional maupun nonkonstitusional.
Di samping itu politik juga dapat ditilik dari sudut pandang berbeda, yaitu antara lain:

• politik adalah usaha yang ditempuh warga negara untuk mewujudkan kebaikan bersama (teori klasik Aristoteles)
• politik adalah hal yang berkaitan dengan penyelenggaraan pemerintahan dan negara
• politik merupakan kegiatan yang diarahkan untuk mendapatkan dan mempertahankan kekuasaan di masyarakat
• politik adalah segala sesuatu tentang proses perumusan dan pelaksanaan kebijakan publik.

Dalam konteks memahami politik perlu dipahami beberapa kunci, antara lain: kekuasaan politik, legitimasi, sistem politik, perilaku politik, partisipasi politik, proses politik, dan juga tidak kalah pentingnya untuk mengetahui seluk beluk tentang partai politik.

Daftar isi [sembunyikan] 1 Ilmu politik 1.1 Teori politik 1.2 Lembaga politik 1.3 Partai dan Golongan 1.4 Hubungan Internasional 2 Masyarakat 3 Kekuasaan 4 Negara 5 Tokoh dan pemikir ilmu politik 5.1 Tokoh-tokoh politik 5.2 Pemikir-pemikir politik 5.2.1 Mancanegara 5.2.2 Indonesia 6 Perilaku politik 7 Lihat pula 8 Referensi

[sunting] Ilmu politik

[sunting] Teori politik

Teori politik merupakan kajian mengenai konsep penentuan tujuan politik, bagaimana mencapai tujuan tersebut serta segala konsekuensinya. Bahasan dalam Teori Politik antara lain adalah filsafat politik, konsep tentang sistem politik, negara, masyarakat, kedaulatan, kekuasaan, legitimasi, lembaga negara, perubahan sosial, pembangunan politik, perbandingan politik, dsb.
Terdapat banyak sekali sistem politik yang dikembangkan oleh negara negara di dunia antara lain: anarkisme,autoritarian, demokrasi, diktatorisme, fasisme, federalisme, feminisme, fundamentalisme keagamaan, globalisme, imperialisme, kapitalisme, komunisme, liberalisme, libertarianisme, marxisme, meritokrasi, monarki, nasionalisme, rasisme, sosialisme, theokrasi, totaliterisme, oligarki dsb.

[sunting] Lembaga politik

Secara awam berarti suatu organisasi, tetapi lembaga bisa juga merupakan suatu kebiasaan atau perilaku yang terpola. Perkawinan adalah lembaga sosial, baik yang diakui oleh negara lewat KUA atau Catatan Sipil di Indonesia maupun yang diakui oleh masyarakat saja tanpa pengakuan negara. Dalam konteks ini suatu organisasi juga adalah suatu perilaku yang terpola dengan memberikan jabatan pada orang-orang tertentu untuk menjalankan fungsi tertentu demi pencapaian tujuan bersama, organisasi bisa formal maupun informal. Lembaga politik adalah perilaku politik yang terpola dalam bidang politik.
Pemilihan pejabat, yakni proses penentuan siapa yang akan menduduki jabatan tertentu dan kemudian menjalankan fungsi tertentu (sering sebagai pemimpin dalam suatu bidang/masyarakat tertentu) adalah lembaga demokrasi. Bukan lembaga pemilihan umumnya (atau sekarang KPU-nya) melainkan seluruh perilaku yang terpola dalam kita mencari dan menentukan siapa yang akan menjadi pemimpin ataupun wakil kita untuk duduk di parlemen.
Persoalan utama dalam negara yang tengah melalui proses transisi menuju demokrasi seperti indonesia saat ini adalah pelembagaan demokrasi. Yaitu bagaimana menjadikan perilaku pengambilan keputusan untuk dan atas nama orang banyak bisa berjalan sesuai dengan norma-norma demokrasi, umumnya yang harus diatasi adalah merobah lembaga feodalistik (perilaku yang terpola secara feodal, bahwa ada kedudukan pasti bagi orang-orang berdasarkan kelahiran atau profesi sebagai bangsawan politik dan yang lain sebagai rakyat biasa) menjadi lembaga yang terbuka dan mencerminkan keinginan orang banyak untuk mendapatkan kesejahteraan.
Untuk melembagakan demokrasi diperlukan hukum dan perundang-undangan dan perangkat struktural yang akan terus mendorong terpolanya perilaku demokratis sampai bisa menjadi pandangan hidup. Karena diyakini bahwa dengan demikian kesejahteraan yang sesungguhnya baru bisa dicapai, saat tiap individu terlindungi hak-haknya bahkan dibantu oleh negara untuk bisa teraktualisasikan, saat tiap individu berhubungan dengan individu lain sesuai dengan norma dan hukum yang berlaku.

[sunting] Partai dan Golongan

[sunting] Hubungan Internasional

Dalam bentuk klasiknya hubungan internasional adalah hubungan antar negara, namun dalam perkembangan konsep ini bergeser untuk mencakup semua interaksi yang berlangsung lintas batas negara. Dalam bentuk klasiknya hubungan internasional diperankan hanya oleh para diplomat (dan mata-mata) selain tentara dalam medan peperangan. Sedangkan dalam konsep baru hubungan internasional, berbagai organisasi internasional, perusahaan, organisasi nirlaba, bahkan perorangan bisa menjadi aktor yang berperan penting dalam politik internasional.
Peran perusahaan multinasional seperti Monsanto dalam WTO (World Trade Organization/Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia) misalnya mungkin jauh lebih besar dari peran Republik Indonesia. Transparancy International laporan indeks persepsi korupsi-nya di Indonesia mempunyai pengaruh yang besar.
Persatuan Bangsa Bangsa atau PBB merupakan organisasi internasional terpenting, karena hampir seluruh negara di dunia menjadi anggotanya. Dalam periode perang dingin PBB harus mencerminkan realitas politik bipolar sehingga sering tidak bisa membuat keputusan efektif, setelah berakhirnya perang dingin dan realitas politik cenderung menjadi unipolar dengan Amerika Serikat sebagai kekuatan Hiper Power, PBB menjadi relatif lebih efektif untuk melegitimasi suatu tindakan internasional sebagai tindakan multilateral dan bukan tindakan unilateral atau sepihak. Upaya AS untuk mendapatkan dukungan atas inisiatifnya menyerbu Irak dengan melibatkan PBB, merupakan bukti diperlukannya legitimasi multilateralisme yang dilakukan lewat PBB.
Untuk mengatasi berbagai konflik bersenjata yang kerap meletus dengan cepat di berbagai belahan dunia misalnya, saat ini sudah ada usulan untuk membuat pasukan perdamaian dunia (peace keeping force) yang bersifat tetap dan berada di bawah komando PBB. Hal ini diharapkan bisa mempercepat reaksi PBB dalam mengatasi berbagai konflik bersenjata. Saat misalnya PBB telah memiliki semacam polisi tetap yang setiap saat bisa dikerahkan oleh Sekertaris Jendral PBB untuk beroperasi di daerah operasi PBB. Polisi PBB ini yang menjadi Civpol (Civilian Police/polisi sipil) pertama saat Timor Timur lepas dari Republik Indonesia.
Hubungan internasional telah bergeser jauh dari dunia eksklusif para diplomat dengan segala protokol dan keteraturannya, ke arah kerumitan dengan kemungkinan setiap orang bisa menjadi aktor dan mempengaruhi jalannya politik baik di tingkat global maupun lokal. Pada sisi lain juga terlihat kemungkinan munculnya pemerintahan dunia dalam bentuk PBB, yang mengarahkan pada keteraturan suatu negara (konfederasi?).

[sunting] Masyarakat

adalah sekumpulan orang orang yang mendiami wilayah suatu negara.

[sunting] Kekuasaan

Dalam teori politik menunjuk pada kemampuan untuk membuat orang lain melakukan sesuatu yang tidak dikehendakinya. Max Weber menuliskan adanya tiga sumber kekuasaan: pertama dari perundangundangan yakni kewenangan; kedua, dari kekerasan seperti penguasaan senjata; ketiga, dari karisma.

[sunting] Negara

negara merupakan suatu kawasan teritorial yang didalamnya terdapat sejumlah penduduk yang mendiaminya, dan memiliki kedaulatan untuk menjalankan pemerintahan, dan keberadaannya diakui oleh negara lain. ketentuan yang tersebut diatas merupakan syarat berdirinya suatu negara menurut konferensi Montevideo pada tahun 1933

[sunting] Tokoh dan pemikir ilmu politik

[sunting] Tokoh-tokoh politik

[sunting] Pemikir-pemikir politik

[sunting] Mancanegara

Tokoh tokoh pemikir Ilmu Politik dari kalangan teoris klasik, modern maupun kontempoter antara lain adalah: Aristoteles, Adam Smith, Cicero, Friedrich Engels, Immanuel Kant, John Locke, Karl Marx, Lenin, Martin Luther, Max Weber, Nicolo Machiavelli, Rousseau, Samuel P Huntington, Thomas Hobbes, Antonio Gramsci, Harold Crouch, Douglas E Ramage.

[sunting] Indonesia

Beberapa tokoh pemikir dan penulis materi Ilmu Politik dan Hubungan Internasional dari Indonesia adalah: Miriam Budiharjo, Salim Said dan Ramlan Surbakti.

[sunting] Perilaku politik

Perilaku politik atau (Inggris:Politic Behaviour)adalah perilaku yang dilakukan oleh insan/individu atau kelompok guna memenuhi hak dan kewajibannya sebagai insan politik.Seorang individu/kelompok diwajibkan oleh negara untuk melakukan hak dan kewajibannya guna melakukan perilaku politik adapun yang dimaksud dengan perilaku politik contohnya adalah:

• Melakukan pemilihan untuk memilih wakil rakyat / pemimpin
• Mengikuti dan berhak menjadi insan politik yang mengikuti suatu partai politik atau parpol , mengikuti ormas atau organisasi masyarakat atau lsm lembaga swadaya masyarakat
• Ikut serta dalam pesta politik
• Ikut mengkritik atau menurunkan para pelaku politik yang berotoritas
• Berhak untuk menjadi pimpinan politik
• Berkewajiban untuk melakukan hak dan kewajibannya sebagai insan politik guna melakukan perilaku politik yang telah disusun secara baik oleh undang-undang dasar dan perundangan hukum yang berlaku

football

"Soccer" redirects here. For other uses, see Soccer (disambiguation).

Association football

The attacking team attempt to kick the ball past the opposition goalkeeper and between the goalposts to score a goal
Highest governing body	FIFA
Nickname(s)	Football, soccer, fùtbol, footy/footie, "the beautiful game", "the world game"
First played	Mid-19th century England
Characteristics
Contact	Yes
Team members	11 per side
Mixed gender	Yes, separate competitions
Categorization	Team sport, ball sport
Equipment	Football
Venue	Football pitch
Olympic	1900

Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of eleven players using a spherical ball. It is widely considered to be the most popular sport in the world.^[1][2][3]
The game is played on a rectangular grass or artificial turf field, with a goal in the centre of each of the short ends. The object of the game is to score by driving the ball into the opposing goal. In general play, the goalkeepers are the only players allowed to use their hands or arms to propel the ball; the rest of the team usually use their feet to kick the ball into position, occasionally using their torso or head to intercept a ball in midair. The team that scores the most goals by the end of the match wins. If the score is tied at the end of the game, either a draw is declared or the game goes into extra time and/or a penalty shootout, depending on the format of the competition.
The modern game was codified in England following the formation of The Football Association, whose 1863 Laws of the Game created the foundations for the way the sport is played today. Football is governed internationally by the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (International Federation of Association Football), commonly known by the acronym FIFA. The most prestigious international football competition is the FIFA World Cup, held every four years.^[4]

Contents [hide] 1 Gameplay 2 History 3 Laws 3.1 Players, equipment and officials 3.2 Pitch 3.3 Duration and tie-breaking methods 3.4 Ball in and out of play 3.5 Misconduct 4 Governing bodies 5 International competitions 6 Domestic competitions 7 Etymology 8 See also 9 References 10 External links

Gameplay

A goalkeeper saving a close-range shot from inside the penalty area

Football is played in accordance with a set of rules known as the Laws of the Game. The game is played using a single spherical ball, known as the football or soccer ball. Two teams of eleven players each compete to get the ball into the other team's goal (between the posts and under the bar), thereby scoring a goal. The team that has scored more goals at the end of the game is the winner; if both teams have scored an equal number of goals then the game is a draw. Each team is led by a captain.
The primary law is that players other than goalkeepers may not deliberately handle the ball with their hands or arms during play, though they do use their hands during a throw-in restart. Although players usually use their feet to move the ball around, they may use any part of their bodies other than their hands or arms.^[5] Within normal play, all players are free to play the ball in any direction and move throughout the pitch, though the ball cannot be received in an offside position.
In typical game play, players attempt to create goal scoring opportunities through individual control of the ball, such as by dribbling, passing the ball to a team-mate, and by taking shots at the goal, which is guarded by the opposing goalkeeper. Opposing players may try to regain control of the ball by intercepting a pass or through tackling the opponent in possession of the ball; however, physical contact between opponents is restricted. Football is generally a free-flowing game, with play stopping only when the ball has left the field of play or when play is stopped by the referee. After a stoppage, play recommences with a specified restart.^[6]

A goalkeeper dives to stop the ball from entering his goal

At a professional level, most matches produce only a few goals. For example, the 2005–06 season of the English Premier League produced an average of 2.48 goals per match.^[7] The Laws of the Game do not specify any player positions other than goalkeeper,^[8] but a number of specialised roles have evolved. Broadly, these include three main categories: strikers, or forwards, whose main task is to score goals; defenders, who specialise in preventing their opponents from scoring; and midfielders, who dispossess the opposition and keep possession of the ball in order to pass it to the forwards on their team. Players in these positions are referred to as outfield players, in order to discern them from the single goalkeeper. These positions are further subdivided according to the area of the field in which the player spends most time. For example, there are central defenders, and left and right midfielders. The ten outfield players may be arranged in any combination. The number of players in each position determines the style of the team's play; more forwards and fewer defenders creates a more aggressive and offensive-minded game, while the reverse creates a slower, more defensive style of play. While players typically spend most of the game in a specific position, there are few restrictions on player movement, and players can switch positions at any time.^[9] The layout of a team's players is known as a formation. Defining the team's formation and tactics is usually the prerogative of the team's manager.^[10]

History

See also: History of association football

Map showing the popularity of football around the world. Countries where football is the most popular sport are coloured green, while countries where it is not are coloured red. The various shades of green and red indicate the number of players per 1,000 inhabitants.

The modern rules of football are based on the mid-19th century efforts to standardise the widely varying forms of football played at the public schools of England.
The Cambridge Rules, first drawn up at Cambridge University in 1848, were particularly influential in the development of subsequent codes, including association football. The Cambridge Rules were written at Trinity College, Cambridge, at a meeting attended by representatives from Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Winchester and Shrewsbury schools. They were not universally adopted. During the 1850s, many clubs unconnected to schools or universities were formed throughout the English-speaking world, to play various forms of football. Some came up with their own distinct codes of rules, most notably the Sheffield Football Club, formed by former public school pupils in 1857,^[11] which led to formation of a Sheffield FA in 1867. In 1862, John Charles Thring of Uppingham School also devised an influential set of rules.^[12]
These ongoing efforts contributed to the formation of The Football Association (The FA) in 1863, which first met on the morning of 26 October 1863 at the Freemasons' Tavern in Great Queen Street, London.^[13] The only school to be represented on this occasion was Charterhouse. The Freemason's Tavern was the setting for five more meetings between October and December, which eventually produced the first comprehensive set of rules. At the final meeting, the first FA treasurer, the representative from Blackheath, withdrew his club from the FA over the removal of two draft rules at the previous meeting: the first allowed for running with the ball in hand; the second for obstructing such a run by hacking (kicking an opponent in the shins), tripping and holding. Other English rugby football clubs followed this lead and did not join the FA, or subsequently left the FA and instead in 1871 formed the Rugby Football Union. The eleven remaining clubs, under the charge of Ebenezer Cobb Morley, went on to ratify the original thirteen laws of the game.^[13] These rules included handling of the ball by "marks" and the lack of a crossbar, rules which made it remarkably similar to Victorian rules football being developed at that time in Australia. The Sheffield FA played by its own rules until the 1870s with the FA absorbing some of its rules until there was little difference between the games.
The laws of the game are currently determined by the International Football Association Board (IFAB). The Board was formed in 1886^[14] after a meeting in Manchester of The Football Association, the Scottish Football Association, the Football Association of Wales, and the Irish Football Association. The world's oldest football competition is the FA Cup, which was founded by C. W. Alcock and has been contested by English teams since 1872. The first official international football match took place in 1872 between Scotland and England in Glasgow, again at the instigation of C. W. Alcock. England is home to the world's first football league, which was founded in Birmingham in 1888 by Aston Villa director William McGregor.^[15] The original format contained 12 clubs from the Midlands and the North of England. The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the international football body, was formed in Paris in 1904 and declared that they would adhere to Laws of the Game of the Football Association.^[16] The growing popularity of the international game led to the admittance of FIFA representatives to the International Football Association Board in 1913. The board currently consists of four representatives from FIFA and one representative from each of the four British associations.
Today, football is played at a professional level all over the world. Millions of people regularly go to football stadiums to follow their favourite teams,^[17] while billions more watch the game on television.^[18] A very large number of people also play football at an amateur level. According to a survey conducted by FIFA published in 2001, over 240 million people from more than 200 countries regularly play football.^[19] While football has the highest global television audience in sport,^[20] its simple rules and minimal equipment requirements have no doubt aided its spread and growth in terms of participation.
In many parts of the world football evokes great passions and plays an important role in the life of individual fans, local communities, and even nations. ESPN has spread the claim that the Côte d'Ivoire national football team helped secure a truce to the nation's civil war in 2005. By contrast, football is widely considered to be the final proximate cause in the Football War in June 1969 between El Salvador and Honduras.^[21] The sport also exacerbated tensions at the beginning of the Yugoslav wars of the 1990s, when a match between Dinamo Zagreb and Red Star Belgrade devolved into rioting in March 1990.^[22]

Laws

There are seventeen laws in the official Laws of the Game. The same laws are designed to apply to all levels of football, although certain modifications for groups such as juniors, seniors, women and the physically challenged are permitted. The laws are often framed in broad terms, which allow flexibility in their application depending on the nature of the game. In addition to the seventeen laws, numerous IFAB decisions and other directives contribute to the regulation of football. The Laws of the Game are published by FIFA, but are maintained by the International Football Association Board, not FIFA itself.^[23] The most complex of the laws is offside. The offside law limits the ability of attacking players to remain forward (i.e. closer to the opponent's goal line) of the ball, the second-to-last defending player (which can include the goalkeeper), and the half-way line.^[24]

Players, equipment and officials

See also: Association football positions, Formation (association football), and Kit (Association football)

Each team consists of a maximum of eleven players (excluding substitutes), one of whom must be the goalkeeper. Competition rules may state a minimum number of players required to constitute a team; this is usually seven. Goalkeepers are the only players allowed to play the ball with their hands or arms, provided they do so within the penalty area in front of their own goal. Though there are a variety of positions in which the outfield (non-goalkeeper) players are strategically placed by a coach, these positions are not defined or required by the Laws.^[8]
The basic equipment or kit players are required to wear includes a shirt, shorts, socks, footwear and adequate shin guards. Headgear is not a required piece of basic equipment, but players today may choose to wear it to protect themselves from head injury. Players are forbidden to wear or use anything that is dangerous to themselves or another player, such as jewellery or watches. The goalkeeper must wear clothing that is easily distinguishable from that worn by the other players and the match officials.^[25]
A number of players may be replaced by substitutes during the course of the game. The maximum number of substitutions permitted in most competitive international and domestic league games is three, though the permitted number may vary in other competitions or in friendly matches. Common reasons for a substitution include injury, tiredness, ineffectiveness, a tactical switch, or timewasting at the end of a finely poised game. In standard adult matches, a player who has been substituted may not take further part in a match.^[26]
A game is officiated by a referee, who has "full authority to enforce the Laws of the Game in connection with the match to which he has been appointed" (Law 5), and whose decisions are final. The referee is assisted by two assistant referees. In many high-level games there is also a fourth official who assists the referee and may replace another official should the need arise.^[27]

Pitch

Main article: Association football pitch

Standard pitch measurements (See Imperial version)

As the Laws were formulated in England, and were initially administered solely by the four British football associations within IFAB, the standard dimensions of a football pitch were originally expressed in imperial units. The Laws now express dimensions with approximate metric equivalents (followed by traditional units in brackets), though popular use tends to continue to use traditional units in English-speaking countries with a relatively recent history of metrication, such as Britain.^[28]
The length of the pitch for international adult matches is in the range 100–110 m (110–120 yd) and the width is in the range 64–75 m (70–80 yd). Fields for non-international matches may be 91–120 m (100–130 yd) length and 45–91 m (50–101 yd) in width, provided that the pitch does not become square. In 2008, the IFAB set a fixed size of 105 m long and 68 m wide as a standard pitch dimension for A international matches.^[29]
The longer boundary lines are touchlines, while the shorter boundaries (on which the goals are placed) are goal lines. A rectangular goal is positioned at the middle of each goal line.^[30] The inner edges of the vertical goal posts must be 7.32 m (8 yd) apart, and the lower edge of the horizontal crossbar supported by the goal posts must be 2.44 m (8 ft) above the ground. Nets are usually placed behind the goal, but are not required by the Laws.^[31]
In front of each goal is an area known as the penalty area. This area is marked by the goal line, two lines starting on the goal line 16.5 m (18 yd) from the goalposts and extending 16.5 m (18 yd) into the pitch perpendicular to the goal line, and a line joining them. This area has a number of functions, the most prominent being to mark where the goalkeeper may handle the ball and where a penalty foul by a member of the defending team becomes punishable by a penalty kick. Other markings define the position of the ball or players at kick-offs, goal kicks, penalty kicks and corner kicks.^[32]

Duration and tie-breaking methods

A standard adult football match consists of two periods of 45 minutes each, known as halves. Each half runs continuously, meaning that the clock is not stopped when the ball is out of play. There is usually a 15-minute half-time break between halves. The end of the match is known as full-time.
The referee is the official timekeeper for the match, and may make an allowance for time lost through substitutions, injured players requiring attention, or other stoppages. This added time is commonly referred to as stoppage time or injury time, and is at the sole discretion of the referee. The referee alone signals the end of the match. In matches where a fourth official is appointed, toward the end of the half the referee signals how many minutes of stoppage time he intends to add. The fourth official then informs the players and spectators by holding up a board showing this number. The signalled stoppage time may be further extended by the referee.^[33] Added time was introduced because of an incident which happened in 1891 during a match between Stoke and Aston Villa. Trailing 1–0 and with just two minutes remaining, Stoke were awarded a penalty. Villa's goalkeeper kicked the ball out of the ground, and by the time the ball had been recovered, the 90 minutes had elapsed and the game was over.^[34]
In league competitions, games may end in a draw, but in some knockout competitions if a game is tied at the end of regulation time it may go into extra time, which consists of two further 15-minute periods. If the score is still tied after extra time, some competitions allow the use of penalty shootouts (known officially in the Laws of the Game as "kicks from the penalty mark") to determine which team will progress to the next stage of the tournament. Goals scored during extra time periods count toward the final score of the game, but kicks from the penalty mark are only used to decide the team that progresses to the next part of the tournament (with goals scored in a penalty shootout not making up part of the final score).
In competitions using two-legged matches, each team competes at home once, with an aggregate score from the two matches deciding which team progresses. Where aggregates are equal, the away goals rule may be used to determine the winners, in which case the winner is the team that scored the most goals in the leg played away from home. If the result is still equal, kicks from the penalty mark are usually required, though some competitions may require a tied game to be replayed.
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the IFAB experimented with ways of creating a winner without requiring a penalty shootout, which was often seen as an undesirable way to end a match. These involved rules ending a game in extra time early, either when the first goal in extra time was scored (golden goal), or if one team held a lead at the end of the first period of extra time (silver goal). Golden goal was used at the World Cup in 1998 and 2002. The first World Cup game decided by a golden goal was France's victory over Paraguay in 1998. Germany was the first nation to score a golden goal in a major competition, beating Czech Republic in the final of Euro 1996. Silver goal was used in Euro 2004. Both these experiments have been discontinued by IFAB.^[35]

Ball in and out of play

Main article: Ball in and out of play

Under the Laws, the two basic states of play during a game are ball in play and ball out of play. From the beginning of each playing period with a kick-off until the end of the playing period, the ball is in play at all times, except when either the ball leaves the field of play, or play is stopped by the referee. When the ball becomes out of play, play is restarted by one of eight restart methods depending on how it went out of play:

A player about to take a free kick

• Kick-off: following a goal by the opposing team, or to begin each period of play.^[6]
• Throw-in: when the ball has wholly crossed the touchline; awarded to opposing team to that which last touched the ball.^[36]
• Goal kick: when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by a player of the attacking team; awarded to defending team.^[37]
• Corner kick: when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by a player of the defending team; awarded to attacking team.^[38]
• Indirect free kick: awarded to the opposing team following "non-penal" fouls, certain technical infringements, or when play is stopped to caution or send-off an opponent without a specific foul having occurred. A goal may not be scored directly from an indirect free kick.^[39]
• Direct free kick: awarded to fouled team following certain listed "penal" fouls.^[39]
• Penalty kick: awarded to the fouled team following a foul usually punishable by a direct free kick but that has occurred within their opponent's penalty area.^[40]
• Dropped-ball: occurs when the referee has stopped play for any other reason, such as a serious injury to a player, interference by an external party, or a ball becoming defective. This restart is uncommon in adult games.^[6]

Misconduct

Players are cautioned with a yellow card, and sent off with a red card. These colours were first introduced at the 1970 FIFA World Cup and used consistently since.

A foul occurs when a player commits an offence listed in the Laws of the Game while the ball is in play. The offences that constitute a foul are listed in Law 12. Handling the ball deliberately, tripping an opponent, or pushing an opponent, are examples of "penal fouls", punishable by a direct free kick or penalty kick depending on where the offence occurred. Other fouls are punishable by an indirect free kick.^[5]
The referee may punish a player or substitute's misconduct by a caution (yellow card) or sending-off (red card). A second yellow card at the same game leads to a red card, and therefore to a sending-off. A player given a yellow card is said to have been "booked", the referee writing the player's name in his official notebook.

A player scores a penalty kick given after an offence is committed inside the penalty area

If a player has been sent off, no substitute can be brought on in their place. Misconduct may occur at any time, and while the offences that constitute misconduct are listed, the definitions are broad. In particular, the offence of "unsporting behaviour" may be used to deal with most events that violate the spirit of the game, even if they are not listed as specific offences. A referee can show a yellow or red card to a player, substitute or substituted player. Non-players such as managers and support staff cannot be shown the yellow or red card, but may be expelled from the technical area if they fail to conduct themselves in a responsible manner.^[5]
Rather than stopping play, the referee may allow play to continue if doing so will benefit the team against which an offence has been committed. This is known as "playing an advantage". The referee may "call back" play and penalise the original offence if the anticipated advantage does not ensue within a short period, typically taken to be four to five seconds. Even if an offence is not penalised due to advantage being played, the offender may still be sanctioned for misconduct at the next stoppage of play.

Governing bodies

See also: Association football around the world

The recognised international governing body of football (and associated games, such as futsal and beach soccer) is the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA). The FIFA headquarters are located in Zürich.
Six regional confederations are associated with FIFA; these are:

• Asia: Asian Football Confederation (AFC)
• Africa: Confederation of African Football (CAF)
• Central/North America & Caribbean: Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF; also known as The Football Confederation)
• Europe: Union of European Football Associations (UEFA)
• Oceania: Oceania Football Confederation (OFC)
• South America: Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol/Confederação Sul-americana de Futebol (South American Football Confederation; CONMEBOL)

National associations oversee football within individual countries. These are generally synonymous with sovereign states, (for example: the Fédération Camerounaise de Football in Cameroon) but also include a smaller number of associations responsible for sub-national entities or autonomous regions (for example the Scottish Football Association in Scotland) . 208 national associations are affiliated both with FIFA and with their respective continental confederations; an additional 13 are affiliated to continental confederations but not to FIFA.
Some of the football associations not recognised by FIFA are affiliated to the Nouvelle Fédération-Board (NF-Board).

International competitions

A minute's silence before an international match

The major international competition in football is the World Cup, organised by FIFA. This competition takes place over a four-year period. More than 190 national teams compete in qualifying tournaments within the scope of continental confederations for a place in the finals. The finals tournament, which is held every four years, involves 32 national teams competing over a four-week period.^[41] The 2006 FIFA World Cup took place in Germany; in 2010 it will be held in South Africa.^[42]
There has been a football tournament at every Summer Olympic Games since 1900, except at the 1932 games in Los Angeles. Before the inception of the World Cup, the Olympics (especially during the 1920s) had the same status as the World Cup. Originally, the event was for amateurs only,^[16] however, since the 1984 Summer Olympics professional players have been permitted, albeit with certain restrictions which prevent countries from fielding their strongest sides. Currently, the Olympic men's tournament is played at Under-23 level. In the past the Olympics have allowed a restricted number of over-age players per team;^[43] but that practice ceased in the 2008 Olympics. The Olympic competition is not generally considered to carry the same international significance and prestige as the World Cup. A women's tournament was added in 1996; in contrast to the men's event, full international sides without age restrictions play the women’s Olympic tournament. It thus carries international prestige considered comparable to that of the FIFA Women's World Cup.
After the World Cup, the most important international football competitions are the continental championships, which are organised by each continental confederation and contested between national teams. These are the European Championship (UEFA), the Copa América (CONMEBOL), African Cup of Nations (CAF), the Asian Cup (AFC), the CONCACAF Gold Cup (CONCACAF) and the OFC Nations Cup (OFC). The FIFA Confederations Cup is contested by the winners of all 6 continental championships, the current FIFA World Cup champions and the country which is hosting the Confederations Cup. This is generally regarded as a warm up tournament for the upcoming FIFA World Cup and does not carry the same prestige as the World Cup itself. The most prestigious competitions in club football are the respective continental championships, which are generally contested between national champions, for example the UEFA Champions League in Europe and the Copa Libertadores de América in South America. The winners of each continental competition contest the FIFA Club World Cup.^[44]

muse

Official – Muse, Powderfinger For Big Day Out Eddie Ruckus - Rockin' Blogger 29 September, 2009 - 5:38 AM

Updated: Tickets for the Sydney Big Day Out on Friday Jan 22 has sold out, so now a second Sydney BDO has been announced.
The second Sydney show is on Saturday, January 23 and will feature the same line-up.
Tickets go on sale next Monday 12th October. For more info go to the Big Day Out website

We told ya! If you’d listened to us and bet your house that Muse were gonna headline the 2010 Big Day Out, you’d have two houses by now!
Playing at January’s monster touring festival features some pleasant surprises indeed. Alongside Muse, Powderfinger will be making their first Big Day Out appearance in five years.
They’ll be fronting an Aussie contingent that includes Eskimo Joe [yay!], Grinspoon [yay!], The Temper Trap, Magic Dirt, Bluejuice and more.
Of the internationals, Lily Allen has come out of her recently announcement retirement from music [ha!] to appear alongside the likes of The Mars Volta, Groove Armada, Kasabian and Dizzee Rascal.

PENEMUAN CADANGAN MIGAS PENTING DUNIA 2006

PENEMUAN CADANGAN MIGAS PENTING DUNIA 2006

Menurut laporan IHS, salah satu perusahaan penyedia informasi di bidang energi dunia, tahun 2006 lalu merupakan tahun menurunnya jumlah penemuan eksplorasi migas di dunia dibandingkan tahun-tahun sebelumnya.

Meskipun demikian, beberapa penemuan penting yang telah membuka horizon baru dan menandai tahun 2006 ini antara lain di Region Australasia : Australia dan Papua New Guinea; Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) : Kazakhstan, Rusia, dan Uzbekistan; Europe : Norway dan UK; Far East : China, India, dan Malaysia; Latin America : Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, Peru, Trinidad & Tobago; Middle East : Iran, Irak, dan Saudi Arabia; Frontier North America : Gulf of Mexico; Saharan Africa : Aljazair dan Mesir; Sub Saharan Africa : Kamerun, Nigeria, dan Uganda.

Seperti yang dilaporkan IHS bahwa meskipun dari segi jumlah penemuan eksplorasi jauh menurun, namun beberapa penemuan, selain besar cadangannya signifikan, juga telah membuka cakrawala baru dan mendorong aktivitas eksplorasi masa depan. “2006 was a year with few jaw-dropping discoveries being reported. However, there were some important finds that opened up some new areas, bolstered nearby producing areas and provided more building blocks for the future”, tulis IHS.



Penemuan Migas Signifikan

Dominasi penemuan besar masih milik Middle East, dimana Iran menyumbangkan 36 TCF cadangan gas melalui penemuan struktur Kish yang menembus reservoir Formasi Kangan berumur Triasic. Struktur gas ini merupakan supergiant discovery dan salah satu yang terbesar di dunia dengan hasil uji produksi sumur Kish-2 mencapai 75 MMSCF perhari pada jepitan 5/8”.

Dari Irak, meskipun negeri ini tengah dilanda perang yang berkepanjangan, namun tetap dapat memberi sumbangan cadangan minyak signifikan sebesar 350 MMBO melalui penemuan struktur Tawke dengan tebal total netpay lebih dari 800 meter dan hasil uji produksi dari satu interval sebesar 5,000 BOPD. Sedangkan Saudi Arabia, oil producer terbesar dunia saat ini, telah membukukan penemuan gas melalui sumur eksplorasi Karan 6 deeper pool dengan cadangan sebesar 10 TCF.

Penemuan dari region lain yang juga signifikan berasal dari Nigeria, melalui penemuan North Bonga yang menembus 90 meter net pay dengan cadangan 500 MMBO, Brazil juga menyumbangkan 280 MMBO cadangan minyak dengan penemuan struktur 4-ESS-164 yang menembus Cretaceous turbidites reservoir dan potential reserves sebesar 1 BBOE (Billion Barels Oil Equivalent) dari struktur 1-RJS-628 A yang juga dapat dikategorikan supergiant field. Kemudian di North Sea dan Gulf of Mexico, sebagai region penyumbang hydrocarbon yang signifikan di dunia, juga masih memberi kontribusi, masing-masing dengan penemuan 275 MMBO melalui pengeboran sumur eksplorasi 30/6-6 di North Sea dan 244 meters hydrocarbon column pada Lower Tertiary reservoir melalui sumur eksplorasi Kiskida di off shore Gulf of Mexico. Di off shore Norway juga ditemukan cadangan gas yang cukup signifikan pada lapisan batupasir berumur Late Triasic dari sumur 7122/6-2, yang akan membawa dampak cukup besar dalam kegiatan eksplorasi di laut Barents dan menambah supply untuk pengembangan LNG Tornerore

Dari Australia telah ditemukan cadangan gas terbesar sampai saat ini dengan tebal netpay 190 meter, berasal dari lapisan batupasir Formasi Munggaroo, dari sumur Clio-1 yang dibor oleh Chevron. Disamping itu, di negeri kangguru ini juga ditemukan cadangan gas lain sebesar 0.5 TCF dari Block Pluto yang dibor oleh Woodside serta 15 MMBO dari North West Shelf dan 30 MMBO dari struktur Montara.

Tetangga kita, Papua New Guinea, membukukan penemuan gas yang cukup signifikan setebal 1,000 meter dari sumur eksplorasi ELK-1 dengan hasil total uji produksi mencapai 72 MMSCF melalui jepitan 60/64 inchs. Sementara itu negeri jiran lainnya, Malaysia, membukukan penemuan gasnya di utara terbuka Blok SK-310 di off shore Serawak melalui sumur eksplorasi PC4-1. Penemuan gas setebal 630 meter ini belum dilaporkan besar cadangannya.



Penemuan Migas di Indonesia

Sayang sekali, tidak ada penemuan yang signifikan dapat dilaporkan sepanjang tahun 2006 dari negeri kita tercinta, termasuk dari Pertamina tentunya. Meskipun tidak tercatat dalam rekor the important discovery, ada beberapa penemuan yang perlu dicatat juga, bagaimanapun akan memberi kontribusi terhadap kelangsungan kegiatan usaha hulu migas di negeri kita. Beberapa kontraktor asing masih mendominasi penemuan eksplorasi migas kita, seperti Chevron menemukan minyak di on shore Sumatra Tengah melalui sumur Kelok Northeast-1 dengan hasil uji produksi 588 BOPD. Sementara itu CNOOC menemukan minyak melalui sumur eksplorasi Delima-1 dan Taskia-1 yang keduanya berada di off shore Jawa Barat, Petrochina menemukan struktur gas di North Arar-1, Blok Kepala Burung, Papua.

Premier berkontribusi juga melalui penemuan minyak, gas dan kondensat melalui sumur Lembu Peteng-1 dan gas dari sumur Macan Tutul-1, yang keduanya berada di blok off shore Natuna Barat. Masih di blok ini, Star Energy menemukan cadangan gas melalui sumur Lukah-1 dengan hasil uji produksi 19.7 MMSCFPD dan kondensat 2.8 BCPD. Bertetangga dengan blok ini, Genting Oil (Sanyen) menemukan cadangan gas dan kondensat melalui sumur eksplorasi Abambas-1 dengan hasil uji produksi 15.6 MMSCFPD dan 488 BCPD.

Di off shore Kalimantan Timur, Total Indonesie membukukan cadangan gas baru dari sumur eksplorasinya Great Sisi North-1 dan Tuna Great South-1, sedangkan Vico di blok on shore-nya menemukan gas melalui sumur eksplorasi Mutiara East Flank-1. Kemudian di off shore Jawa Timur Santos berhasil menemukan cadangan gas barunya melalui pengeboran sumur Wortel-1.

Kontraktor nasional ada juga yang mencatatkan hasil 3 penemuan eksplorasinya berupa minyak dan gas, masing-masing dari sumur MSCN-1, MSDR-1 dan MSED-1 dari blok onshore Sumatra Tengah.



Penemuan Migas Pertamina

Kinerja eksplorasi Pertamina tahun 2006 ini kurang menggembirakan dibanding tahun-tahun sebelumnya. Hanya ada 3 penemuan eksplorasi yang dapat dicatat sepanjang tahun lalu, antara lain penemuan cadangan gas di Jambi melalui sumur eksplorasi Karangmakmur (KRM)-1 dengan hasil uji produksi total dari 2 selang sebesar 5 MMSCFPD gas dan 233 BCPD kondensat. Dari hasil evaluasi post drilling maka cadangan gas KRM-1 sementara dapat dihitung sebagai cadangan Terbukti (P1) sebesar 12.6 BCFG & 0.6 MMBC, Cadangan Mungkin (P2) sebesar 84.7 BCFG & 2.7 MMBC, serta cadangan Harapan (P3) sebesar 571.5 BCFG & 3.7 MMBC. Untuk dapat mengkonversi cadangan migas menjadi P1 (terbukti) semua, maka masih diperlukan tambahan data melalui pemboran delineasi.

Masih dari Sumatra, Pertamina bekerja sama dengan Bumi Siak Pusako (BSP) melalui Badan Operasi Bersama menemukan cadangan minyak baru di Blok CPP, Sumatra Tengah, melalui pengeboran sumur Bene Bekasap South East-1.

Dari Jawa Barat, Eksplorasi Pertamina berhasil membuktikan cadangan minyaknya melalui pengeboran sumur Karangbaru Barat (KBB)-1. Sampai saat ini sumur KBB-1 masih dalam tahap penyelesaian uji produksi.


Problem-problem Non Teknis

Turunnya jumlah penemuan migas dunia pada tahun 2006 disinyalir akibat beberapa persoalan non teknis, antara lain terjadinya proses nasionalisasi oil company di Venezuela dan Bolivia, Amerika Latin, serta tantangan politik di negara Rusia dan beberapa negara lainnya. Sayang sekali memang, justru sisi non teknis inilah yang malah menjadi faktor penghambat penemuan-penemuan migas di dunia ini.

Sementara itu sedikitnya hasil temuan eksplorasi Pertamina, juga banyak terhambat masalah non teknis atau lebih tepatnya non geology & geophysics (non g & g), terlihat dari jumlah usulan sumur eksplorasi yang sudah masuk RK 2006 maupun dalam Work Program & Budget (WP&B) yang disetujui oleh BP Migas, kenyataannya hanya 3 sumur tersebut yang dapat dieksekusi pada tahun lalu. Sedikitnya jumlah sumur yang dapat dieksekusi, akibat persetujuan AFE dari BP Migas terlambat dan juga berkaitan dengan sulitnya perijinan untuk pembuatan lokasi sumur. Dan secara teknis ketiga sumur yang dapat dieksekusi telah membuktikan adanya cadangan migas atau 100 %.Mudah-mudahan tahun 2007 ini dan ke depan persoalan-persoalan non teknis seperti ini tidak akan terjadi lagi, mengingat 1 tahun cukup sudah masa transisi dari memutuskan program eksekusi sendiri menjadi harus melalui persetujuan BP Migas. Satu tahun sudah cukup rasanya belajar bagaimana menyusun WP&B dan persetujuan AFE. Seperti kata Direktur Hulu dalam pesan singkatnya melalui milis Eksplorasionis bahwa,”Kita mengharapkan alasan non G & G yang menyebabkan kecilnya penemuan cadangan sudah tidak ada lagi di tahun 2007. Tantangan buat seluruh explorationist Pertamina agar di tahun 2007 dapat menemukan cadangan yang sangat signifikan, Reserves to Production Ratio harus diatas 20 tahun. Kita selesaikan bersama PR ini.”

Nanang Abdul Manaf - Direktorat Hulu

Ladang Minyak dan Gas di Riau Rawan Gangguan Keamanan

Ladang Minyak dan Gas di Riau Rawan Gangguan Keamanan

Kamis, 04 Desember 2003

PEKANBARU (Riau Online): Situasi keamanan pada ladang minyak di lokasi offshore (lepas pantai) dan onshore (daratan) di Provinsi Riau dinilai rawan gangguan keamanan. Para nelayan asing tidak saja memasuki batas toleransi yang ditentukan setengah mil dari lokasi ladang minyak, tapi juga nekad memasuki ruang perkantoran. PEKANBARU (Riau Online): Situasi keamanan pada ladang minyak di lokasi offshore (lepas pantai) dan onshore (daratan) di Provinsi Riau dinilai rawan gangguan keamanan. Para nelayan asing tidak saja memasuki batas toleransi yang ditentukan setengah mil dari lokasi ladang minyak, tapi juga nekad memasuki ruang perkantoran.

Hal itu terungkap dalam rapat pengamanan bersama antara kontraktor kontrak kerjasama (K3S) Migas dan Polda Riau, kemarendi Hotel Aryaduta Pekanbaru. Dalam pertemuan itu, seluruh unsur K3S meminta perlindungan keamanan kepada jajaran Polda Riau.

“Kondisinya sudah mengkhawatirkan. Para nelayan asal Thailand tidak saja memasuki batas toleransi setengah mil dari wilayah eksplorasi tapi juga nekad memasuki ruang kantor (operation room). Ini khan sudah berbahaya,� kata Gunawan, perwakilan K3S untuk wilayah offshore.

Untuk meminta bantuan personil Polri, katanya, sulit dilakukan. Karena selain jaraknya cukup jauh, tapi juga jumlah personil yang siaga di Polsek tidak mencukupi. “ Setiap Polsek hanya ada sekitar lima personil. Untuk meminta bantuan kita membutuhkan waktu berjam-jam lamanya untuk mencapai lokasi offshore,� katanya.

Oleh sebab itu, pihaknya lebih banyak mendapat bantuan dari personil angkatan laut guna mengamankan lokasi eksplorasi dari gangguan bajak laut serta nelayan asing. Namun, seluruh perusahaan K3S tetap mengharapkan bantuan personil Polri yang bisa ditempatkan secara permanent di lokasi eksplorasi.

Senada dengan itu, perwakilan K3S dari unsure onshore, Rasfuldi menyebutkan gangguan keamanan pada ladang minyak di wilayah daratan yang paling menonjol adalah pencurian asset perusahaan. Selain itu, gangguan keamanan berupa aksi blokade terhadap lading minyak dapat membuat aktivitas terganggu.

PT Caltex Pasific Indonesia (CPI) mencatat lebih 500 persen peningkatan gangguan keamanan di ladang minyak onshore sejak reformasi bergulir. Pencurian asset perusahaan merupakan kasus paling menonjol.

“Amat disayangkan jika gangguan tersebut tidak bisa diatasi dengan cepat. Karena Riau memberikan kontribusi hampir separuh pamasukan Migas sebesar 25 persen terhadap APBN,� kata Rasfuldi.

Sedangkan Kepala Dinas Sekuriti Badan Pengelola (BP) Sektor Hulu Minyak dan Gas (Migas) Tjokro Suprihartono memprioritaskan pihak pengamaman local yang melakukan pengamanan di ladeang minyak offshore maupun onshore. “Meski banyak pihak pengamanan asing yang mengajukan penawaran untuk terlibat mengamankan ladang-ladang minyak di Indonesia,� katanya.

Menurut kaca matanya, keamanan di ladang minyak belum mengkhawatirkan seperti yang dilansir di media asing. “ Sehingga tidak enak didengar. Padahal situasinya masih kondusif, tapi mereka sudah sangat ketakutan,� ujarnya.

Ketakutan tersebut, lanjutnya, karena propaganda dari aksi teror serta gerakan separatis Aceh Merdeka. Perkembangan situasi global yang diwarnai isu terror dan peledakan-peledakan bom di tempat-tempat strategis yang dilakukan kelompok teroris di belahan dunia menyebabkan ancaman tersebut juga terjadi di Indonesia.

Di Riau daratan dan Kepulauan terdapat sebanyak 10 Kontrak Produksi Sharing (KPS) Pertamina. Di Riau daratan terdapat PT Caltex Pasific Indonesia (CPI), Kondur Petroleum, PT Exspan, Daerah Operasi Hulu (DOH), Badan Operasi Bersama (Joint Operating Body/ JOB) Pertamina, JOB Coastal Plains Pekanbaru (CPP) Block, dan PT Petronusa Bumi Bakti. Sedangkan di areal Kepulauan terdapat areal offshore seperti KPS Conoco Philips, Premier Philips, dan Star Energy di Pulau Natuna.

Tjokro mengatakan, keamanan perlu diprioritaskan pada lokasi eksplorasi gas di Natuna dan Matak. Lokasi ekslorasi yang sangat jauh dari jangkauan pihak keamanan menyebabkan lokasi tersebut rentan terhadap gangguan keamanan. “ Kondisi seperti ini mirip yang terjadi di Kalimantan Timur. Tapi pelaksana pengamanan disana lebih maksimal,� katanya.(ton)